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(Archived - Unit 7)
(Archived - Unit 7)
Assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand (June 28, 1914): Heir to Austro-Hungarian throne killed by Serbian nationalist Gavrilo Princip in Sarajevo. Austria-Hungary’s harsh ultimatum to Serbia triggers a chain reaction of alliance commitments.
Nationalism:
Unifying factor within powerful nation-states (Britain, France, Germany).
Divisive force in multiethnic empires (Austria-Hungary, Ottoman Empire, Russian Empire), causing tensions particularly in the Balkans ("powder keg" of Europe).
Imperial Rivalries:
Competition among European powers (especially Germany, France, Britain) for colonies heightened tensions and mistrust.
Militarism and Arms Race:
Massive military buildup, especially in Germany with the construction of dreadnought battleships challenging Britain’s naval supremacy.
Detailed mobilization plans like Germany’s Schlieffen Plan created a scenario where war became inevitable once mobilization started.
Alliance Systems:
Triple Alliance: Germany, Austria-Hungary, Italy (initially).
Triple Entente: Britain, France, Russia.
Alliances ensured localized conflicts escalated into global war quickly.
Initially viewed as short and decisive, quickly evolved into prolonged and devastating conflict.
Rapid German advance into Belgium and France stalls; Battle of the Marne (Sept. 1914) stops German progress, leading to stalemate.
Western Front: 500-mile trench line stretching from North Sea to Swiss border.
Battles defined by massive casualties, minimal territorial gains (Verdun, Somme); entrenched warfare results in unprecedented human suffering.
Eastern Front: Initially more mobile, but eventually also bogs down; Russian weaknesses exposed leading to internal collapse.
Empires pulled colonies into war: British and French forces recruit soldiers and laborers from colonies (India, Africa, Australia, Canada).
Ottoman Empire joins Central Powers, creating a Middle Eastern front; key battles include Gallipoli (1915) and Arab Revolt (1916).
Japan seizes German-held territories in China and Pacific.
Naval blockades significant: British blockade cripples German economy; Germany retaliates with unrestricted submarine warfare (e.g., sinking of Lusitania, 1915).
New technologies: machine guns, chemical warfare (chlorine and mustard gas), airplanes initially for reconnaissance later engage in aerial combat, tanks (introduced in 1916 by British), submarines (U-boats) revolutionize naval strategy.
Prompted by Germany's resumption of unrestricted submarine warfare and the Zimmerman Telegram proposing German-Mexican alliance.
Significant economic and military support to Allied powers tips balance against Central Powers.
Approx. 10 million dead, 20 million wounded; massive psychological and physical destruction across Europe.
Devastation of economies, destruction of infrastructure, and loss of an entire generation shaped postwar policies and attitudes.
Imposed harsh reparations on Germany, territorial losses, severe military restrictions (Article 231: War Guilt Clause).
Redrawing European and Middle Eastern borders creates new states but also sows seeds for future conflicts.
Ottoman Empire dismantled; territory distributed as League of Nations mandates, notably British Palestine mandate (Balfour Declaration supports Jewish homeland) creates long-term tensions.
Austro-Hungarian Empire fragmented into independent nations (Austria, Hungary, Czechoslovakia, Yugoslavia).
Russian Empire collapses; Bolshevik Revolution (1917) creates the Soviet Union.
European dominance weakened; rise of United States as a global economic and political power.
Colonies demand greater autonomy or independence in return for wartime sacrifices, laying groundwork for anti-colonial movements (India, Africa).
Women's roles shift significantly due to wartime labor demands; women's suffrage movements gain momentum.
Artistic and literary responses (Lost Generation, disillusionment); modernism reflects trauma of war.
Weakness of Tsarist Russia:
Nicholas II’s ineffective leadership, failure to address demands for reform, poverty among peasants, and workers’ discontent.
Military defeats in WWI, massive casualties, and shortages deepen public frustration.
March (February) Revolution (1917):
Spontaneous uprisings in Petrograd (St. Petersburg) result in Tsar’s abdication.
Establishment of the Provisional Government, dominated by liberal reformers; however, continues unpopular participation in WWI.
Rise of the Bolsheviks (Communists):
Bolsheviks under Vladimir Lenin advocate immediate peace, land redistribution, and power to Soviets (workers’ councils).
Lenin’s slogan: “Peace, Land, and Bread” resonates widely with soldiers, workers, and peasants.
November (October) Revolution (1917):
Bolsheviks seize power, overthrow Provisional Government.
Establish communist state; Lenin begins radical reforms (nationalization of industries, redistribution of land).
Reds (Bolsheviks) vs. Whites (anti-communist coalition: monarchists, liberals, foreign forces).
Bolshevik victory solidifies communist authority; Red Army organized by Trotsky effectively defends regime.
Severe destruction of Russian economy, widespread famine, millions of deaths.
Emergence of authoritarian rule under Communist Party.
Union of Soviet Socialist Republics created, merging various ethnic territories under centralized communist authority.
Temporary allowance of limited capitalism to rebuild economy; increased agricultural productivity and stabilized economy temporarily.
Implements radical Five-Year Plans aiming rapid industrialization and military strength; emphasis on heavy industries (steel, coal, machinery) over consumer goods.
Soviet Union quickly becomes a major industrial power but at enormous human and social cost.
Stalin forces peasants into state-run collective farms (kolkhozy); intended to boost grain production and fund industrialization.
Resistance from wealthier peasants (kulaks) brutally crushed; widespread famine (e.g., Ukraine Famine or Holodomor), millions die.
Stalin conducts purges to consolidate absolute power; elimination of perceived threats (military officers, Communist Party leaders, intellectuals).
Millions sent to Gulags (labor camps); widespread fear and suspicion become pervasive.
Fall of Qing Dynasty (1911 Revolution):
Corruption, economic exploitation by foreigners, and internal rebellions weaken Qing rule.
Revolutionaries led by Sun Yat-sen overthrow the last emperor, establishing the Republic of China in 1912.
Sun Yat-sen’s Principles:
Advocates “Three Principles of the People”: Nationalism (freeing China from foreign domination), Democracy, and Livelihood (economic development).
Initial efforts fail due to warlordism, regional fragmentation, and limited national control.
May Fourth Movement (1919):
Massive nationalist protests triggered by outrage over Versailles Treaty’s decision to transfer German concessions in China to Japan.
Movement encourages anti-imperialist sentiment, demands modernization, democratization, and rejection of Confucian traditions.
Guomindang (GMD) and the Nationalists:
Chiang Kai-shek emerges as leader after Sun Yat-sen’s death (1925); aims to unify China and eliminate warlords.
Initially allies with the Communist Party but later violently suppresses communists (Shanghai Massacre, 1927).
Rise of Chinese Communism (CCP):
Founded in 1921; Mao Zedong emerges as leader, advocating a rural-based communist revolution (peasant rather than urban proletariat as revolutionary class).
Civil War (1927–1949, intermittent):
Chiang Kai-shek’s Nationalists vs. Mao’s Communists; violent internal conflict weakens China.
Long March (1934–1935): Mao leads communist forces on a strategic retreat, solidifying his leadership and communist unity.
Japanese Aggression (1931–1945):
Japan occupies Manchuria (1931), establishing puppet state (Manchukuo); invades China proper in 1937, capturing major cities including Nanjing (Nanjing Massacre, 1937).
Temporary alliance formed between GMD and CCP to resist Japanese occupation; CCP gains popular support through effective guerrilla resistance.
Communist States Emerge:
Soviet Union: Quickly becomes authoritarian industrial power; global spread of communist ideology.
China: Communist victory delayed until 1949 but gains popular support through land reform promises, anti-Japanese resistance, and peasant mobilization.
Differences:
Soviet Union industrializes rapidly under harsh authoritarian regime.
China struggles with fragmentation and foreign invasions before achieving unity and communist control later.
Stock Market Crash of 1929 ("Black Thursday"):
Collapse of New York Stock Exchange due to speculative investments, overextension of credit, and lack of regulation.
Immediate financial panic, bank failures, and loss of life savings.
Underlying Economic Weaknesses:
Overproduction in agriculture and industry; declining commodity prices harming farmers globally.
Unequal distribution of wealth limiting consumer purchasing power.
Excessive dependence on U.S. economy globally, especially Europe dependent on American loans post-WWI.
Policy Mistakes:
Protectionism, notably Smoot-Hawley Tariff (1930) imposed by the U.S. to protect American businesses, triggers global trade war; world trade plummets sharply.
Massive Unemployment and Poverty:
U.S.: Unemployment peaks at 25%; homelessness, hunger widespread.
Europe: Severe hardship, particularly in Germany (30% unemployment); rising despair fuels political radicalization.
Latin America, Africa, and Asia suffer economically due to collapse of demand for their exports (agricultural and raw materials).
Political and Social Impacts:
Capitalism’s credibility damaged; ideologies promising radical solutions (communism, fascism) become appealing.
Rise of social unrest, protests, and labor movements globally.
Fascism Defined:
Ultra-nationalist, authoritarian ideology emphasizing totalitarian control, national rebirth, militarism, aggressive foreign expansion, and suppression of political opposition.
Appeals through promises of stability, strong leadership, national pride, and restoration of economic prosperity.
Rise to Power:
Exploits postwar economic crises, nationalist resentment (Italy felt betrayed by Versailles), fear of communism, and weak parliamentary government.
March on Rome (1922): Mussolini appointed Prime Minister by King Victor Emmanuel III.
Fascist State in Italy:
Establishes dictatorship, eliminates political opponents, censorship, secret police.
Propaganda glorifies state, Mussolini (“Il Duce”), and militarism.
Aggressive foreign policy: Conquest of Ethiopia (1935–1936), alliance with Nazi Germany ("Rome-Berlin Axis," 1936).
Factors Leading to Nazi Rise:
Anger over Treaty of Versailles (war guilt, reparations, territory loss).
Hyperinflation crisis (1923), Great Depression (1930s), and ineffective democratic government (Weimar Republic).
Hitler capitalizes on fears of communism, economic instability, and nationalism combined with anti-Semitic propaganda.
Hitler’s Consolidation of Power:
Appointed Chancellor (1933); quickly establishes a totalitarian dictatorship through Enabling Act (1933), outlawing opposition parties.
Implements policies emphasizing Aryan racial purity, nationalism, anti-Semitism (Nuremberg Laws, 1935).
Economic Policies:
Public works projects, military buildup (rearmament), reduction of unemployment; initially popular with German public despite oppressive political climate.
Aggressive Foreign Policy:
Violates Treaty of Versailles: remilitarization of Rhineland (1936), Anschluss with Austria (1938), demands Sudetenland from Czechoslovakia (Munich Agreement, 1938).
Stalinist Totalitarianism Reinforced by Depression:
As Western economies falter, Stalin’s USSR appears relatively stable; industrialization continues through forced labor and collectivization.
Stalin’s brutal control viewed positively by some observers as an effective alternative to capitalist instability, despite massive human costs (Great Purges, Gulags, famines).
Economic Roots of Japanese Expansion:
Great Depression hits Japan’s export-dependent economy hard; militarists advocate aggressive expansion to secure resources, markets, and territory.
Invasion of Manchuria (1931):
Kwantung Army occupies Manchuria (Northeast China) establishing puppet state (Manchukuo).
League of Nations unable to effectively respond; Japan withdraws from League (1933).
Full-Scale War with China (1937):
Japanese forces invade mainland China, initiating Second Sino-Japanese War.
Infamous Nanjing Massacre (1937–1938): brutal atrocities against civilians; deepens anti-Japanese sentiment internationally.
Militarist Government and Ideology:
Militarists control Japanese politics; imperial ideology emphasizing racial superiority, divine emperor worship, and national destiny to dominate Asia (Greater East Asia Co-Prosperity Sphere).
Common Factors:
Economic desperation from Depression, weakened democracies, fear of communism/socialism.
Charismatic leaders promising strength, stability, and renewal by exploiting nationalist and xenophobic sentiments.
Differences:
Italy and Germany: fascist regimes promoting extreme nationalism and aggressive military expansion.
Soviet Union: Communist authoritarianism focused internally on industrialization, collectivization, and class struggle.
Japan: Militarist-nationalist regime prioritizing territorial conquest in Asia for economic resources.
Expansionist policies driven by militarism, nationalism, racism, and economic pressures.
Germany: Violations of Versailles Treaty (rearmament, Rhineland remilitarization, Anschluss with Austria, occupation of Czechoslovakia).
Italy: Invasion of Ethiopia (1935), alliance with Germany ("Rome-Berlin Axis," 1936).
Japan: Aggression in Manchuria (1931), invasion of China (1937).
Britain and France pursue appeasement (Munich Conference, 1938) to avoid war, allowing Hitler’s territorial expansion to continue unchecked.
Hitler perceives Western democracies as weak, prompting further aggression.
Hitler and Stalin agree to non-aggression pact; secretly plan division of Eastern Europe, enabling Hitler to invade Poland without Soviet interference.
Invasion of Poland (September 1, 1939):
WWII begins with German blitzkrieg ("lightning war") rapidly conquering Poland; Britain and France declare war, though initial response is minimal ("Phony War").
Blitzkrieg across Europe (1940):
Germany swiftly conquers Denmark, Norway, Belgium, Netherlands, and France (June 1940). France collapses within weeks, shocking the world.
Battle of Britain (1940):
German Luftwaffe bombards Britain; fierce aerial defense by Royal Air Force prevents German invasion, Britain survives isolated but undefeated.
Operation Barbarossa (June 1941):
Massive German invasion of USSR; initial rapid advance stalls before Moscow and Leningrad due to harsh winter, fierce Soviet resistance, and logistical challenges.
Japanese Expansion in the Pacific (1941–1942):
December 7, 1941: Japan attacks Pearl Harbor; U.S. enters war.
Japan quickly captures Southeast Asia (Philippines, Malaya, Singapore, Dutch East Indies), threatening Allied control in the Pacific.
Battle of Stalingrad (1942–1943):
Decisive Soviet victory after brutal urban warfare; German Sixth Army surrenders. Turning point on Eastern Front, initiating Soviet advance westward.
North Africa and Italy (1942–1944):
Allies defeat Axis powers in North Africa (El Alamein, 1942; Operation Torch), gain foothold for invasion of Italy.
Mussolini’s regime collapses (1943); prolonged fighting continues as Germans occupy northern Italy.
Pacific Theater – Battle of Midway (June 1942):
Crucial U.S. naval victory, sinking Japanese aircraft carriers; shifts momentum toward Allies.
Allied Invasion of France (D-Day, June 6, 1944):
Massive amphibious invasion in Normandy opens western front; France liberated within months, Germany faces two-front war.
Advance toward Germany (1944–1945):
Allies close in from east and west; Soviet forces capture Berlin in April 1945; Hitler commits suicide. Germany surrenders unconditionally (May 7–8, 1945).
Pacific War – Island-Hopping Campaign (1943–1945):
Allies gradually recapture strategic Pacific islands from Japan (Guadalcanal, Iwo Jima, Okinawa), devastating Japanese defenses and paving path toward invasion of Japan.
Atomic Bombings (August 1945):
Hiroshima (August 6) and Nagasaki (August 9); Japan surrenders August 14, ending WWII.
Total War and Mobilization:
Civilians directly targeted in mass bombing campaigns (e.g., London, Dresden, Tokyo firebombings), unprecedented civilian casualties and destruction.
Complete mobilization of national economies; widespread rationing, conscription, propaganda, and industrial output oriented entirely toward war efforts.
Holocaust and War Crimes:
Nazi Germany implements genocidal "Final Solution," systematically exterminating six million Jews and millions of other victims (Roma, disabled, political prisoners) in concentration/death camps.
Japanese atrocities in occupied territories (Nanjing Massacre, Unit 731 human experiments).
New Military Technologies:
Massive use of tanks, aircraft carriers, strategic bombing, radar, sonar, jet propulsion, rocket technology (V-2 rockets), and atomic weapons fundamentally alter warfare.
Estimated 60–70 million deaths globally; massive civilian casualties, unprecedented in history.
Europe devastated, infrastructure destroyed; millions displaced.
End of global dominance by European powers; Britain and France significantly weakened; United States and Soviet Union emerge as global superpowers.
Seeds of Cold War planted: division of Europe (East vs. West), ideological rivalry between capitalism (U.S.) and communism (USSR).
Colonies in Asia and Africa demand independence due to weakened European colonial powers, increased nationalism, and wartime contributions (e.g., India’s independence struggle accelerates).
International body designed to prevent future global conflict; replaces failed League of Nations; stronger international framework with major power involvement.
Europe and Asia rebuilt through initiatives like Marshall Plan (U.S. economic aid to Europe); recovery oriented toward avoiding postwar economic collapse that characterized WWI aftermath.
European colonial powers weakened economically and politically by two world wars.
Increasing nationalist sentiment among colonized peoples, driven by education, experience in global conflicts, and resentment of colonial exploitation and racial discrimination.
Impact of Woodrow Wilson’s ideas of self-determination after WWI and the anti-imperialist rhetoric following WWII.
British Rule and Early Nationalist Sentiment:
Indian National Congress (INC, founded 1885):
Initially seeks greater administrative roles for Indians; shifts toward demanding independence after WWI.
Partition of Bengal (1905):
British attempt to divide and control triggers nationalist protests and widespread anti-British sentiment.
All-India Muslim League (1906):
Established to protect Muslim minority interests; eventually demands separate Muslim state (Pakistan).
Impact of World War I on India:
Over one million Indians serve; expect political concessions from Britain post-war but are disappointed.
Amritsar Massacre (1919):
British troops fire on peaceful protesters, killing hundreds; galvanizes anti-British sentiment nationwide.
Gandhi and Mass Mobilization:
Mohandas (Mahatma) Gandhi:
Advocates nonviolent resistance (satyagraha), appealing to diverse social classes.
Encourages economic self-sufficiency through boycotts (e.g., Salt March, 1930).
Symbolizes moral high-ground of Indian struggle internationally, attracting global support.
Partition and Independence (1947):
WWII accelerates British withdrawal due to economic exhaustion.
Rising tensions between Hindus and Muslims; British partition India into two states (India and Pakistan), causing massive violence, displacement, and communal conflict.
Independence granted August 1947; Gandhi assassinated January 1948, symbolic end of united nationalist leadership.
Colonial Conditions and Early Resistance:
Colonial economies structured to serve European interests; Africans subjected to forced labor, taxation, land confiscation.
Early political movements (African National Congress founded 1912 in South Africa) seek rights and autonomy within colonial framework.
Impact of World Wars:
Africans drafted into European armies; return home politicized, demanding political rights and independence.
Great Depression intensifies economic hardship, fueling resentment against colonial exploitation.
Emergence of New Nationalist Leaders:
Educated African elites begin demanding self-rule and political reform; organize nationalist movements inspired by global anti-colonial ideas (e.g., Jomo Kenyatta in Kenya, Kwame Nkrumah in Gold Coast/Ghana).
Nationalist leaders challenge colonial legitimacy by appealing to African traditions, history, and racial pride.
Limited Progress Pre-1945:
Despite growing nationalism, most African colonies do not achieve independence before 1945; however, WWII greatly accelerates demands for freedom in the postwar era.
Economies reliant on exports of raw materials (coffee, sugar, oil); vulnerable to global economic fluctuations, notably the Great Depression.
Deep socioeconomic divisions: wealthy landowners control resources; vast majority peasants and workers impoverished.
Causes: widespread poverty, land inequality under dictator Porfirio Díaz, foreign economic dominance (U.S. investors).
Outcomes:
Revolutionary factions (e.g., Emiliano Zapata, Pancho Villa) advocate land redistribution and social justice.
Constitution of 1917 establishes progressive reforms (land redistribution, labor rights, secular education); limited implementation initially, but later presidents (like Lázaro Cárdenas, 1934–1940) enact substantial reforms, including oil nationalization (1938).
Getúlio Vargas seizes power during Great Depression; promotes nationalist, state-led economic policies, industrialization.
Establishes "Estado Novo" (1937–1945), authoritarian regime emphasizing industrial development, populist rhetoric, and reducing dependence on foreign powers.
Military coup (1943) amidst economic instability and social tensions; Juan Perón emerges as leader, appealing directly to working classes.
Elected president (1946), Perón implements populist reforms (wage increases, worker protections), industrialization, and economic nationalism, reducing foreign economic influence.
India achieves political independence but faces deep internal divisions, violence from partition.
Africa sets the stage for widespread decolonization post-1945; independence largely delayed, yet nationalism intensifies significantly.
Latin America achieves political autonomy early (19th century) but struggles with economic independence, social justice, and political stability into mid-20th century.
Economic exploitation by colonial or neocolonial powers motivates movements.
Influence of global crises (WWI, WWII, Depression) accelerates nationalist consciousness.
Leaders blend Western ideologies (nationalism, socialism) with local traditions, creating distinctive independence movements adapted to regional contexts.