Study GuideS
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Political Motives:
Nationalism and competition among European powers for prestige.
Protection of colonial holdings and strategic territories (e.g., British control over Egypt to secure the Suez Canal).
Military advantage through control of key locations.
Economic Motives:
Industrialization created demand for raw materials like rubber, cotton, and metals.
Need for new markets to sell manufactured goods.
Investment opportunities in colonies.
Cultural Motives:
Missionary zeal to spread Christianity and Western education.
Belief in European superiority (racism, social Darwinism).
Desire to “civilize” non-European societies through Western technology and culture.
Technological Advances:
Steamships and canals (Suez Canal) improved transportation.
Quinine reduced the threat of malaria, enabling deeper exploration.
Advanced weaponry like breech-loading rifles and machine guns.
Colonial Administration:
Direct rule in some regions (French Indochina), indirect rule through local elites in others (British in India).
Dependence on indigenous cooperation for governance.
Suez Canal (1869): Opened by Egypt, but British took control in 1882.
Berlin Conference (1884–1885): Organized by Bismarck to set rules for African colonization.
Henry Morton Stanley: Explored Congo for King Leopold II.
King Leopold II: Brutally exploited Congo Free State for rubber.
Menelik II of Ethiopia: Defeated Italians at Adowa (1896), maintaining independence.
West Africa: French expansion and exploitation of resources.
Congo Basin: Brutal forced labor under Leopold II.
Southern Africa: British vs. Afrikaners; discovery of diamonds (1868) and gold (1886) led to conflicts.
Displacement of African societies.
Forced labor and high taxes.
Resistance movements (Zulu, Asante, Herero), though often unsuccessful except Ethiopia.
Defeat of Kazakhs and Uzbeks.
Introduction of cotton plantations and railroads.
British in Burma and Malaya: Focused on resource extraction.
French in Indochina: Exploited land for rice and rubber.
Dutch in Indonesia: Controlled spice and rubber trade.
Hawaii (1898): Annexed by U.S. for sugar plantations and naval bases.
Philippines (1898): U.S. acquired after Spanish-American War; Emilio Aguinaldo led resistance but was defeated by 1902.
Free-Trade Imperialism: Economic dominance without direct political control.
Railroads built to export raw materials (e.g., British investments in Argentina).
Spanish-American War (1898): U.S. gained Puerto Rico, Guam, and the Philippines.
Platt Amendment (1901): U.S. intervention rights in Cuba.
Panama Canal (1914): Built after U.S. supported Panamanian independence from Colombia.
Global trade expansion with demand for raw materials.
Railroads, canals (Suez, Panama), and steamships improved transportation.
Deforestation for plantations (rubber, tea, coffee).
Irrigation projects in India and Egypt increased agricultural output.
Mining operations caused pollution.
Period marked by industrialization, technological advancements, social changes, nationalism, and imperialism.
The Second Industrial Revolution (steel, electricity, chemicals, communication).
The rise of Germany, Italy, and Japan as powerful industrialized nations.
Imperial expansion and conflicts between major powers.
The impact of nationalism and socialism on global politics.
China’s decline vs. Japan’s modernization.
Unlike the First Industrial Revolution (coal, iron, textiles), this period saw advancements in:
Steel production: Bessemer Process made it cheaper, stronger, more flexible.
Electricity: Transformed industry and daily life.
Chemical industry: New dyes, explosives, and fertilizers.
Transportation: Railroads, steamships, Suez Canal (1869).
Communication: Telegraph and submarine cables (1866, transatlantic).
Railroads:
Expanded in Europe, North America, Latin America, Africa, and Asia.
Impact: Opened land for farming, created new industries, connected markets.
Steamships:
Iron and steel hulls, propellers, and powerful engines improved speed and efficiency.
Suez Canal (1869): Cut travel time between Europe and Asia.
Telegraph system (1851 English Channel, 1866 transatlantic)
Submarine cables connected continents.
Enabled faster global business transactions.
Tenfold increase in trade (1850–1913).
Britain led global finance, with London as the center of banking.
Capitalism created economic booms and depressions (business cycles).
Europe’s population nearly doubled from 265M (1850) → 468M (1914).
Mass European migration to the U.S., Canada, Argentina, and Australia.
Asian migration (indentured laborers) to Southeast Asia, the Caribbean, Africa.
First majority-urban country: Britain (1851)
City populations exploded:
London: 2.7M (1850) → 6.6M (1900).
New York: 64K (1800) → 3.4M (1900).
Public health improvements: Water/sewer systems, electric lighting, police forces.
Victorian Age (1837–1901):
Middle-class: “Separate Spheres” ideology (men = work, women = home).
Working-class women: Factory work, domestic service, textiles.
Karl Marx & Friedrich Engels: Communist Manifesto (1848)
Labor unions legalized (1850s in Britain, later in Europe and U.S.).
Socialist parties gained influence in European politics.
Early nationalism (Mazzini, 1848 revolutions) = radical, democratic.
Later nationalism (Bismarck, Cavour) = used for state-building and war.
Leaders:
Cavour (Northern Italy) – PM of Piedmont-Sardinia, formed alliance with France.
Garibaldi (Southern Italy) – Led the Red Shirts.
Outcome: Italy unified under King Victor Emmanuel II.
Otto von Bismarck used “Blood and Iron” strategy.
Key Wars:
Austro-Prussian War (1866) – Prussia defeated Austria.
Franco-Prussian War (1870–71) – Prussia defeated France, annexed Alsace-Lorraine.
Result: Germany unified under Kaiser Wilhelm I (1871).
Overthrew Tokugawa Shogunate, modernized industry, military, and government.
Modeled navy after Britain, army after Prussia.
Zaibatsu (industrial conglomerates) grew.
Wilhelm II (r. 1888–1918) dismissed Bismarck, sought an aggressive foreign policy.
Built a massive navy to rival Britain.
Weakened by low birthrates and loss in Franco-Prussian War.
Maintained “splendid isolation” but focused on its empire.
Faced Irish nationalist movements.
Ethnic nationalism weakened both empires.
Russia lost Russo-Japanese War (1905) → Led to Revolution of 1905.
Taiping Rebellion (1850–1864) weakened Qing Dynasty.
Empress Dowager Cixi resisted modernization.
Boxer Rebellion (1900): Anti-foreign uprising, crushed by European powers.
Sino-Japanese War (1894–95): Japan defeated China, took Taiwan & Korea.
Russo-Japanese War (1904–05): Japan defeated Russia, first Asian power to defeat a European one.
The New Power Balance (1850–1900) was shaped by industrialization, nationalism, and imperialism.
Germany, the U.S., and Japan emerged as new global powers.
China’s resistance to modernization led to decline, while Japan’s embrace of change led to strength.
Tensions set the stage for World War I.
Zulu Kingdom (1818)
Established by Shaka Zulu, a military leader.
Used strict military discipline, short stabbing spears, and ox-hide shields.
Effects: Strengthened the Zulu military, displaced many local tribes.
Significance: Created a strong African state but contributed to mass migrations and conflict (Mfecane).
Sokoto Caliphate (1809-1906)
Leader: Usuman dan Fodio, an Islamic scholar, led a jihad to reform Islam in West Africa.
Key Features:
The largest Islamic empire in West Africa.
Focused on Islamic learning and enforcing Muslim laws.
Sold captives into the trans-Saharan slave trade, despite British abolition.
Significance: Strengthened Islamic governance in the region, influenced later resistance to European colonialism.
Abolition of the Transatlantic Slave Trade (1807-1867)
Britain led abolition efforts, patrolled the Atlantic to intercept slave ships.
Slavery still persisted in Africa (e.g., Sokoto Caliphate, Zanzibar plantations).
Significance: Led to economic shifts; African economies adapted by increasing "legitimate trade."
Legitimate Trade
Shift from slavery to exports like palm oil (used for soap and lubrication).
Jaja of Opobo: Former slave who became a wealthy palm oil trader.
Significance: Strengthened African trade but still maintained exploitative labor conditions.
European Exploration & Secondary Empires
David Livingstone & Henry Morton Stanley: Mapped African rivers, spurred European interest.
Tippu Tip (Congo Region): Created an ivory and slave trading empire, supplying European markets.
Significance: Laid groundwork for the European "Scramble for Africa."
Early Company Rule (1757-1818)
British controlled Bengal after the Battle of Plassey (1757).
Sepoys (Indian soldiers) protected British interests, helping them defeat Tipu Sultan of Mysore.
Significance: Laid the foundation for British political and economic dominance.
Sepoy Rebellion (1857-1858)
Causes:
British disregard for religious customs (cartridges greased with cow/pig fat).
High-caste Hindus resented forced overseas deployment.
Growing economic discontent due to high taxes.
Effects:
British crushed the revolt, abolished the Mughal Empire.
British government took direct control (end of EIC rule).
Significance: Marked the beginning of British imperial rule ("Raj").
British Raj (1858-1947)
New centralized government, controlled by a British viceroy.
Indian Civil Service (ICS): Elite bureaucracy; open to all but heavily biased against Indians.
Durbar Ceremonies: Lavish imperial displays to reinforce British supremacy.
Economic & Social Transformations
Railroads & Telegraph (1840s-1870s): Connected India but primarily benefited British industry.
Cash Crops: British promoted cotton, opium, and tea production for export.
Social Reforms: Outlawed sati (widow burning), legalized widow remarriage (1856).
Significance: Increased economic integration but worsened poverty for Indian farmers.
Rise of Indian Nationalism
Rammohun Roy (Brahmo Samaj): Early reformer promoting Hindu modernization.
Indian National Congress (1885): Advocated for more Indian representation in government.
Significance: Laid the foundation for future independence movements.
British Conquests During the Napoleonic Wars
Seized Cape Colony (South Africa) from the Dutch (1795, formally in 1814).
Took Ceylon (Sri Lanka), Mauritius, and Malacca.
Significance: Secured British trade routes to India and China.
Australia & New Zealand
Australia: Established as a penal colony (1788); gold rush (1851) attracted settlers.
New Zealand: British signed the Treaty of Waitangi (1840) with the Maori, leading to conflict.
Significance: Expansion of British settler colonies.
End of Slavery = Demand for Cheap Labor
Indentured laborers from India, China, and Africa migrated to British plantations in the Caribbean, Southeast Asia, and Africa.
Conditions: Harsh contracts, low pay, often little better than slavery.
Significance: Created multicultural societies in colonies (e.g., Indian diaspora in the Caribbean).
Imperialism & Resistance: British dominance led to local revolts (Zulu resistance, Sepoy Rebellion, Maori Wars).
Economic Change: Shift from slave trade to "legitimate trade" (palm oil, opium, cotton) fueled global capitalism.
Nationalism & Identity: Early nationalist movements (Sokoto Caliphate, Indian National Congress) shaped resistance.
Technology & Empire: Railroads, telegraphs, and steamships strengthened British control.