AI Notes
These notes are generated by AI but read and checked for accuracy.
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These notes are generated by AI but read and checked for accuracy.
Scroll down to view previous Chapters. (Archived Unit 6)
AI Notes: Chapter 28 - The Crisis of the Imperial Order, 1900–1929
Early 20th century saw rising tensions among European powers due to nationalism, militarism, and alliance systems.
Germany’s growing power challenged Britain and France.
The Ottoman Empire, known as the "sick man of Europe," weakened, losing territories to nationalist movements.
The Balkans became a hotspot of instability due to rising Slavic nationalism and the decline of Ottoman influence.
The assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand in 1914 triggered a chain reaction, leading to World War I.
WWI began with Germany's invasion of Belgium and France; trench warfare led to a prolonged stalemate on the Western Front.
The war saw unprecedented destruction, with machine guns, tanks, poison gas, and airplanes transforming combat.
Eastern Front saw Russia struggle against Germany and Austria-Hungary; internal unrest grew in Russia.
The United States entered the war in 1917, helping tip the balance in favor of the Allies.
Russia experienced two revolutions in 1917: the February Revolution, which overthrew the Tsar, and the October Revolution, which brought the Bolsheviks to power.
The Treaty of Brest-Litovsk (1918) ended Russian involvement in WWI, ceding large territories to Germany.
WWI ended with the 1918 armistice; the Treaty of Versailles (1919) placed heavy reparations on Germany, fostering resentment.
The League of Nations was created to prevent future conflicts but lacked enforcement power.
Germany faced economic instability, including hyperinflation in the early 1920s.
The Great Depression (1929) led to further global economic hardship.
China faced internal struggles, including the May Fourth Movement (1919), protesting foreign domination.
Japan gained territory from Germany in China and issued the Twenty-One Demands, increasing its influence over Chinese affairs.
Japan industrialized rapidly, strengthening its military and economy.
The Ottoman Empire collapsed, leading to the partitioning of its territories under the mandate system (Britain controlled Palestine and Iraq; France controlled Syria and Lebanon).
Mustafa Kemal (Atatürk) led the establishment of modern Turkey, rejecting European dominance and implementing reforms.
The Balfour Declaration (1917) supported a Jewish homeland in Palestine, setting the stage for future conflicts.
Post-war years saw rapid technological advancements: automobiles, aviation, radio, and cinema reshaped daily life.
Wilbur and Orville Wright made significant contributions to aviation.
Urbanization and modernist architecture, including skyscrapers, transformed cities.
WWI reshaped the global order, dismantling old empires and fueling nationalist movements.
The harsh terms of the Treaty of Versailles planted the seeds for WWII.
The interwar period saw economic and political instability, setting the stage for further global conflicts.
Key Takeaways:
Nationalism, militarism, and alliances led to WWI.
Technological advancements changed warfare and society.
The Treaty of Versailles and the Great Depression destabilized Europe.
The Middle East and East Asia saw significant political shifts post-WWI.
Definition: "New Imperialism" refers to the aggressive expansion of European powers, the United States, and Japan between 1869 and 1914.
Scale: 10 million square miles and 150 million people were brought under imperial rule.
Motives:
Political: National prestige, territorial rivalries, and military strategy.
Cultural: European and American belief in superiority, missionary efforts, and social Darwinism.
Economic: Demand for raw materials, new markets for goods, and investment opportunities.
Methods:
Industrial technology gave Europeans a major advantage.
Gunboats and shipping: Steamships and canals (Suez Canal in 1869) shortened travel times and enhanced European military/naval power.
Military superiority: Breech-loading rifles, repeating rifles, and machine guns allowed small European forces to defeat much larger native armies.
Colonial administration: Depended on European governors but relied on indigenous elites for local governance.
Before 1870: Africa was largely independent with minimal European presence.
After 1870: European powers carved up the continent through military conquest and diplomacy.
Key Events:
The Suez Canal (1869): Built in Egypt; increased European interest in controlling Egypt.
Berlin Conference (1884–1885): Organized by Bismarck to formalize African colonization, requiring "effective occupation" to claim territory.
Key Figures:
Henry Morton Stanley: Explored the Congo for Belgium’s King Leopold II.
King Leopold II: Created the Congo Free State, infamous for brutal exploitation of rubber.
Menelik II of Ethiopia: Defeated the Italians at the Battle of Adowa (1896), maintaining Ethiopian independence.
Southern Africa:
British sought control over Boer (Afrikaner) republics after discovering diamonds (1868) and gold (1886).
The South African War (1899–1902) between Britain and Afrikaners resulted in British victory, but Afrikaners later regained political control.
Central Asia:
Russia expanded into Central Asia, defeating Kazakh and Uzbek groups.
Russia established cotton plantations and abolished slavery.
Southeast Asia & Indonesia:
British conquered Burma (Myanmar) and Malaya (Malaysia).
French took over Indochina (Vietnam, Laos, Cambodia).
Dutch expanded control over Indonesia.
Economic impact: These regions became centers for cash crops like rubber, tea, coffee, and sugar.
The Philippines & Hawaii:
Hawaii (1898): Annexed by the U.S. for its strategic location and sugar plantations.
The Philippines (1898):
Emilio Aguinaldo led a rebellion against Spanish rule.
After the Spanish-American War (1898), the U.S. took control, leading to a Filipino insurrection (1899–1902), which was brutally suppressed.
Economic Domination ("Free-Trade Imperialism"):
European and American companies controlled Latin American economies.
Railroads built to export raw materials rather than develop domestic economies.
Spanish-American War (1898):
U.S. gained Puerto Rico, Guam, and the Philippines.
Cuba technically became independent but remained under U.S. control (Platt Amendment, 1901).
American Intervention (1901–1914):
The U.S. frequently intervened in Latin America to protect its economic and strategic interests.
The Panama Canal (1914) was built after the U.S. backed Panama’s independence from Colombia.
Economic Expansion:
Trade in industrial raw materials and agricultural goods (rubber, cotton, oil, coffee, tea).
New transportation infrastructure (railroads, canals, and steamships).
Environmental Impact:
Deforestation for plantations (tea in India, rubber in Southeast Asia).
Large-scale irrigation transformed dry lands into farmland (India, Egypt).
Mining operations led to pollution and environmental degradation.
The late 19th and early 20th centuries saw an unprecedented expansion of European, American, and Japanese influence across Africa, Asia, and Latin America.
Technological advancements in transportation, weaponry, and communication made imperial conquests and economic exploitation easier.
The effects of imperialism were devastating for indigenous populations, leading to loss of sovereignty, economic dependency, and environmental destruction.
However, imperialism also laid the foundations for nationalist movements that would challenge colonial rule in the 20th century.
Railroads were a key factor in industrial expansion, connecting markets and facilitating trade.
Britain was the first to industrialize and construct rail networks, but by 1890, Germany and the U.S. had surpassed it.
Railroads were built in industrialized and non-industrialized nations alike.
India: Britain built an extensive rail network to consolidate its control and exploit resources.
Japan: Initially relied on British engineers but quickly trained its own, showcasing early industrialization.
Environmental impact: Railroads consumed vast quantities of land and natural resources (wood, coal, iron).
Transition from sail to steam:
The Suez Canal (1869) reduced travel time between Europe and Asia, making steamships dominant.
Submarine telegraph cables connected continents:
By 1900, global trade was coordinated in real-time, enhancing Western economic dominance.
The Bessemer process (1850s) revolutionized steel production, making it cheaper and more widely available.
The chemical industry (mainly in Germany) created synthetic dyes, fertilizers, and explosives.
Alfred Nobel developed dynamite (1866), increasing both industrial productivity and military firepower.
Electricity became the defining energy source of the late 19th century.
Thomas Edison (1879): Developed the practical incandescent light bulb, leading to electrified cities.
Electric motors replaced steam engines in industries, making factories safer and more efficient.
Trade expanded tenfold from 1850–1913.
Industrialized nations exported manufactured goods; non-industrial nations exported raw materials.
Business cycles caused economic booms and depressions.
Britain dominated world finance, controlling ⅔ of submarine cables and ½ of global shipping.
European population doubled from 265M (1850) to 468M (1914).
Migration from Europe to the Americas, Australia, and New Zealand increased due to:
Poverty, persecution, and political unrest (e.g., Irish famine, Russian pogroms).
Improved transportation (railroads and steamships).
Asian migration:
Chinese and Indians moved as indentured laborers to Southeast Asia, the Caribbean, and Africa.
Japanese migration increased to Latin America and the U.S.
By 1914, 80% of Britain, 60% of Germany, and 45% of France lived in cities.
New York grew fiftyfold from 1800 to 1900.
New infrastructure (sewers, clean water, police, and gas lighting) made cities safer.
Public transportation (trains, electric streetcars) enabled suburban living.
Victorian ideals emphasized domestic roles for women and public roles for men.
Household labor decreased due to electric appliances, plumbing, and heating.
Women’s work: Before marriage, they could work in stores and offices, but few professions were open to them.
Education: Middle-class girls were taught social graces rather than professional skills.
Suffrage movements:
Emmeline Pankhurst led women's suffrage in Britain.
Susan B. Anthony & Elizabeth Cady Stanton in the U.S.
Worked in factories, domestic service, and textile mills.
Earned ⅓ to ⅔ of men’s wages.
Faced long hours and poor working conditions.
Many supplemented income by taking in boarders or doing piecework.
Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels wrote the Communist Manifesto (1848).
Marx argued history was a class struggle between:
Bourgeoisie (capitalists) – owners of production.
Proletariat (workers) – exploited for their labor.
Predicted a revolution where workers would overthrow capitalists and establish a classless, communist society.
Labor unions fought for better wages, conditions, and benefits.
Universal male suffrage spread in the late 19th century.
Socialist parties sought parliamentary influence rather than revolution.
Led by Giuseppe Garibaldi (military leader) and Count Cavour (political leader).
Piedmont-Sardinia expanded to form a united Italy.
Nationalism transitioned from a radical idea to a conservative strategy.
Otto von Bismarck used war (“blood and iron”) to unify Germany.
Defeated Austria (1866) and France (1870), establishing the German Empire.
France resented the loss of Alsace-Lorraine, creating long-term tensions.
Japan overthrew the Tokugawa Shogunate and embraced modernization.
Industrialization and military expansion followed:
Western-style education, government, and military were adopted.
State-run industries were privatized into zaibatsu (powerful conglomerates).
Germany became Europe’s dominant power.
Wilhelm II dismissed Bismarck and pursued colonial expansion.
France struggled with low population growth and political division.
Britain maintained global naval dominance but was losing industrial leadership to the U.S. and Germany.
Ethnic tensions made nationalism a destabilizing force.
Russia industrialized slowly and lost the Russo-Japanese War (1905), leading to the 1905 Revolution.
Taiping Rebellion (1850–1864) weakened China.
Western imperialism forced unequal treaties.
Empress Dowager Cixi resisted modernization.
Sino-Japanese War (1894–1895): Japan defeated China and gained Korea, Taiwan, and Manchuria.
Boxer Uprising (1900): Anti-foreign movement in China crushed by an international coalition.
Russo-Japanese War (1904–1905): Japan defeated Russia, proving itself a major power.
Industrialization created economic growth and technological advancements.
Nationalism reshaped world politics (Italy, Germany, Japan).
Imperialism expanded Western dominance, but Japan resisted and thrived.
Social movements pushed for labor rights, democracy, and women’s rights.
The stage was set for WWI as tensions rose among the Great Powers.
1. African Political and Economic Shifts (1750–1870)
New African states emerged as old ones collapsed.
The Zulu Kingdom rose under Shaka Zulu (1818–1828), utilizing advanced military tactics.
Islamic reform movements in West Africa, particularly the Sokoto Caliphate (1809–1906), sought to enforce Islamic law.
The end of the transatlantic slave trade (abolished by Britain in 1807) led to shifts in trade:
Expansion of "legitimate trade" (commodities instead of slaves).
Increased European intervention in African economies.
2. Modernization in Egypt and Ethiopia
Egypt (Muhammad Ali, 1805–1849):
Reforms in military, agriculture, and industry made Egypt a regional power.
Heavy borrowing from European banks led to financial dependence.
Ethiopia (Téwodros II, r. 1855–1868)
Modernization efforts included local weapons production.
British invasion (1868) crushed his resistance.
3. European Penetration into Africa
French Conquest of Algeria (1830–1847)
Prolonged guerrilla resistance led by ‘Abd al-Qadir.
European settlers (130,000 by 1871) took fertile lands.
British naval patrols enforced anti-slavery laws along the West African coast.
Explorers like David Livingstone and Henry Morton Stanley mapped the continent, paving the way for future European colonization.
4. Abolition and "Legitimate" Trade
Britain ended the slave trade in its empire in 1807 and slavery in 1834.
New trade items: palm oil, gold, and ivory.
Coastal African merchants, such as Jaja of Opobo, built powerful trade networks.
5. Secondary Empires in Eastern Africa
Omani Sultanate (Zanzibar)
Tippu Tip created a vast inland empire based on ivory and slaves.
Slave labor remained vital for plantation economies despite British pressure to end slavery.
1. The British East India Company (EIC) and Expansion
Mughal Decline & European Influence
Mughal power weakened after Persian and Afghan invasions.
Indian states (Marathas, Sikhs, and nawabs) vied for power.
The British, Dutch, and French competed for Indian markets.
British Control Grows
Battle of Plassey (1757): EIC defeated the Nawab of Bengal, securing tax rights.
By 1818, the EIC controlled vast territories (Bengal, Bombay, Madras).
Indian sepoys formed the backbone of the EIC’s military.
2. The Raj and the Sepoy Rebellion (1857)
British Policies & Social Change
"Westernization" vs. "Tradition":
British promoted private property, railways, and Anglicization.
At the same time, they strengthened the power of Indian princes and religious elites.
The economy became export-driven (cotton, tea, opium).
Sepoy Rebellion (1857–1858)
Triggered by animal fat-greased cartridges, violating Hindu and Muslim beliefs.
Escalated into a broader anti-British uprising.
Rebels restored the Mughal emperor as a symbolic leader.
The British crushed the revolt with brutal force.
Aftermath
The EIC was dissolved in 1858, and Britain took direct control of India.
Queen Victoria promised religious tolerance but reinforced British dominance.
3. Political Reforms & Nationalism
British Rule After 1858
New "British Raj" (rule by the British government).
Indian Civil Service (ICS) managed administration but was dominated by British officials.
Railroads & Telegraphs boosted trade but benefited British interests.
Rise of Indian Nationalism
Rammohun Roy (1772–1833): Promoted Indian reforms based on Western ideas.
Indian National Congress (1885): Formed by Western-educated Indians seeking more representation.
1. Expansion of British Influence
Britain's focus shifted from the Americas to Asia.
The empire became centered on trade, commerce, and resource extraction.
New colonial acquisitions (1750–1870):
Cape Colony (South Africa, 1795)
Ceylon (1796)
Singapore (1819, founded by Stamford Raffles)
Burma (Annexed in stages, 1826–1852)
2. Colonization of Australia & New Zealand
Australia (1788)
Originally a penal colony.
Gold rush (1851) brought a surge of settlers.
Displacement and genocide of Aborigines.
New Zealand
Home to the Maori, who resisted British colonization.
British annexation (1840, Treaty of Waitangi)
Settler expansion and land disputes led to wars with the Maori.
3. Indentured Labor Migrations
End of Slavery and Rise of Indentured Labor (1834–1870)
With slavery abolished, plantations sought cheap labor.
Indian, Chinese, and African laborers were sent to:
British Caribbean
Fiji
Mauritius
South Africa
Laborers faced harsh conditions, but many settled permanently.
British economic policies led to deep transformations in India and Africa.
Africa:
The abolition of the slave trade shifted economies toward commodity exports.
New states (Zulu, Sokoto, Egypt) emerged or modernized.
India:
The Sepoy Rebellion resulted in direct British rule.
Indian nationalism grew, setting the stage for future independence movements.
The Pacific:
Australia and New Zealand became white settler societies, marginalizing indigenous populations.
A Global Trade Network:
British steamships, railroads, and free trade policies dominated global commerce.
European imperialism grew stronger from 1750 to 1870, driven by economic motives, military superiority, and industrialization.
Africa and India were transformed by British colonial rule, experiencing both economic growth and exploitation.
Resistance movements (Zulu, Sepoy Rebellion, Maori Wars) occurred but were ultimately suppressed.
The seeds of anti-colonial nationalism were planted, leading to future independence movements in Africa and India.